Rates and Types of Teacher Praise a Review and Future Directions

Introduction

Students' motivation and date as two prime instances of positive academic behaviors serve a facilitative function in their learning success (Martin et al., 2017). Appropriately, raising students' academic motivation and engagement has been among the pinnacle priorities of all effective instructors. However, many instructors, notably English every bit a Foreign Language (EFL) and English equally a Second Linguistic communication (ESL) teachers are nevertheless unaware of how to considerably enhance their students' academic motivation and engagement. In fact, how EFL and ESL students' academic motivation and engagement can exist improved is not widely recognized (Henry and Thorsen, 2018). Students' academic motivation or motivation to learn generally refers to "their chief impetus for initiating learning too as the reason for standing the prolonged and irksome process of learning" (Ushioda, 2008, p. 21). More specifically, conceptualized language learners' academic motivation as the caste to which they strive to acquire a new language out of a desire to practise so and the enjoyment they experienced in the process of learning. Likewise, educatee academic engagement as some other case of desirable bookish behaviors pertains to "students' active, goal-directed, flexible, constructive, persistent, focused interactions with the learning environment" (Furrer and Skinner, 2003, p. 149). In the domain of language education, students' academic appointment refers to their agile participation in learning and mastering a new language (Hiver et al., 2021).

Every bit Irvin et al. (2007) noted academic motivation and engagement as two related constructs are of high importance for students' increased achievement, advancement, and academic success. Concerning the value of student academic motivation in instructional-learning environments, Froiland and Oros (2014) postulated that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation of pupils tin favorably influence their academic performance. In a like vein, Martin (2013) also stated that the sense of enjoyment that highly motivated students experience in classroom contexts encourages them to enthusiastically pursue different stages of learning. This, in turn, contributes to desirable learning outcomes. In this regard, Howard et al. (2021) besides illustrated the importance of motivation by referring to its positive issue on students' level of perseverance. They articulated that academic motives tin can empower students to resist the difficulties that they may experience during the learning procedure.

To shed light on the significance of student bookish engagement, Skinner and Pitzer (2012) mentioned that students' active membership in instructional-learning contexts enables them to gain higher academic grades. Similarly, Finn and Zimmer (2012) submitted that students' degree of participation in educational contexts is closely related to their academic growth. To them, cipher like active participation in classrooms can facilitate students' educational advancement. Additionally, Philp and Duchesne (2016) likewise postulated that students' academic engagement can remarkably increase the likelihood of their bookish success. Drawing on what has been mentioned regarding the centrality of bookish motivation and engagement in students' educational success, investigating the determinants and predictors of these variables seems crucial.

Against this backdrop, numerous studies accept inspected the bear on of students' personality traits on their bookish motivation (e.g., Komarraju et al., 2009; De Feyter et al., 2012; Hazrati-Viari et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2013; Guo, 2021) and date (east.yard., Linvill, 2014; Kahu et al., 2015; Qureshi et al., 2016; Rostami et al., 2017). Several studies accept also been conducted to examine the effects of teachers' personality traits on students' motivation and engagement (e.g., Gibbs and Powell, 2012; Sabet et al., 2018; Khalilzadeh and Khodi, 2021). Additionally, many empirical and theoretical studies take probed into the role of teachers' positive communication behaviors, including credibility (e.m., Imlawi et al., 2015; Derakhshan, 2021), immediacy (e.g., Dixson et al., 2017; Liu, 2021; Zheng, 2021), and confirmation (e.g., Shen and Croucher, 2018; LaBelle and Johnson, 2020; Gao, 2021), in promoting student bookish motivation and engagement. Even so, teacher praise every bit ane of the most influential communication behaviors has received scant attending (Downs, 2017; Caldarella et al., 2021).

The concept of praise more often than not refers to "exact or nonverbal actions indicating the positive quality of a behavior over and above the evaluation of accuracy" (Kalis et al., 2007, p. 23). Similarly, teacher praise pertains to any gesture or argument that instructors utilise to admire their students' advisable and favorable behaviors (Reinke et al., 2008). Jenkins et al. (2015) postulated that teacher praise is a "viable, nonintrusive classroom strategy" that can be easily utilized by teachers in any instructional-learning environment. As Marchant and Anderson (2012) noted, the exact or nonverbal activeness used by teachers to applaud their pupils' positive behaviors may piece of work as a stimulator, encouraging students to repeat the desired actions. They also suggested that teachers can inspire a feeling of mastery and accomplishment in their pupils by acknowledging their satisfactory behaviors. These positive feelings contribute to increased student motivation (Titsworth, 2000). According to Richard (2012), students' willingness to participate in classroom activities also improves when instructors praise their academic functioning.

Despite the importance of teachers' verbal and nonverbal admiration in increasing educatee' academic motivation and engagement (Marchant and Anderson, 2012; Richard, 2012), a few scholars (Downs, 2017; Caldarella et al., 2021) have studied teacher praise in relation to these positive academic behaviors. Furthermore, no theoretical or systematic review has been carried out in this regard. Thus, to narrow the existing gaps, the electric current review study aims to provide a detailed description of these variables (i.eastward., instructor praise, pupil motivation, and student date), their theoretical foundations, and the existing association among them.

Related Literature

Teacher Praise

The term praise comes from a Latin verb, namely "pretiare," which means "to value highly" (Burnett, 2002, p. 6). This construct is literally divers as "the expression of approval or admiration for one's behavior or characteristic" (Brophy, 1981, p. five). In line with this definition, Burnett and Mandel (2010) conceptualized teacher praise as positive verbal or nonverbal deportment through which teachers glorify students whenever they perform well. Equally clearly mentioned in this definition, similar other advice behaviors such as immediacy, confirmation, and stroke (Han and Wang, 2021; Xie and Derakhshan, 2021), instructor praise can exist both verbal and nonverbal. As Shernoff et al. (2020) noted, exact praise refers to any positive comments that teachers offering to students due to their desired academic behaviors. Nonverbal praise also pertains to any gestures, including nodding and grin, teachers use to exalt their pupils. Generally, teacher praise is of two types: "Full general Praise (GP)" and "Beliefs-Specific Praise (BSP)" (Floress et al., 2017). GP means admiring students' behavior without mentioning which aspects of their performance were acceptable (Duchaine et al., 2011). In contrast, BSP, equally the name speaks for itself, entails "blessing with an explanation of the advisable behavior exhibited" (Duchaine et al., 2011, p. 210).

Pupil Bookish Motivation

The concept of motivation is generally conceptualized as a stimulating force that directs human behaviors (Brophy, 1983). Student motivation to learn, also known as academic motivation, is related to their motive "to make certain academic decisions, participate in classroom activities, and persist in pursuing the demanding process of learning" (Dörnyei and Ushioda, 2009, p. 2). Working on unlike types of student academic motivation, Brophy (1983) divided this construct into two broad categories, namely "state motivation" and "trait motivation." State motivation refers to "students' attitude toward a particular course" (Guilloteaux and Dörnyei, 2008, p. 56). Trait motivation, on the other hand, deals with students' general tendency toward the learning process (Csizér and Dörnyei, 2005). While students' trait motivation is typically constant during a whole course, their country motivation is open to drastic changes (Trad et al., 2014). As Hiver and Al-Hoorie (2020) mentioned, pupil land motivation can be dramatically influenced by their viewpoints and attitudes toward their instructors, course content, and learning environment. Similarly, Dörnyei (2020) also posited that how students perceive their teachers' personal and interpersonal behaviors has a significant impact on their bookish motivation. It implies that those teachers who comport appropriately in classroom contexts have a beneficial impact on their students' state motivation (Cheng and Dörnyei, 2007; Bernaus and Gardner, 2008; Papi and Abdollahzadeh, 2012).

Educatee Academic Engagement

Student engagement, in a general sense, refers to the corporeality of time, energy, and effort that students willingly dedicate to educational activities (Appleton et al., 2008). Skinner et al. (2009, p. 495) conceptualized this construct equally "the quality and quantity of students' participation or connexion with the educational effort and hence with activities, values, individuals, aims, and place that comprise it." Despite the existing controversy regarding the terminology of this concept, many scholars referred to this construct as "student academic date" (e.g., Leach and Dolan, 1985; Greenwood et al., 2002; Brint et al., 2008). Other academics named this construct as "school engagement" (Jimerson et al., 2003), "educational date" (Wehlage et al., 1989), and "written report appointment" (Schaufeli et al., 2002). Similarly, in that location has been a long debate over the number and types of the components of this construct (Alrashidi et al., 2016). Every bit an example, Audas and Willms (2001) classified the components of student date into two broad categories, whereas Fredricks et al. (2004) divided this construct into three main dimensions (Tabular array 1).

Table 1. Different dimensions of academic date.

Despite all the aforementioned discrepancies, researchers take come to the conclusion that the construct of academic engagement is multidimensional and covers several aspects, including cognitive, emotional, and behavioral, working together to demonstrate students' positive attitudes toward the learning process (Hiver et al., 2021).

The Impact of Teacher Praise on EFL Students' Academic Motivation and Engagement

The impact of instructor praise on EFL students' level of motivation and engagement tin can be readily illustrated through "Emotional Response Theory (ERT)." In their theory, Mottet et al. (2006) asserted that the positive communication behaviors, including praise, used by linguistic communication teachers while instructing may effect in learners' positive responses such equally happiness, L2 enjoyment, and pleasure. To them, those language learners who experience a sense of happiness, pleasure, or enjoyment in the learning environment are more than motivated to pursue the learning process. Those who are sufficiently motivated tend to actively take office in classroom activities (Martin, 2007; Pekrun and Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2012; Reeve, 2012). In a similar vein, cartoon on the positive psychology motion (Dewaele et al., 2019; MacIntyre et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2021), Xie and Derakhshan (2021) also illustrated the favorable association between teacher communication behaviors and students' academic behaviors (e.g., engagement, motivation, etc.). They stated that, through effective communication behaviors, language teachers are able to create a pleasant educational atmosphere, wherein learners enjoy learning a new language. Having a sense of enjoyment is of high importance for students' increased motivation and engagement (Kulakow and Raufelder, 2020; Pedler et al., 2021). All in all, based on what Mottet et al. (2006) and Xie and Derakhshan (2021) mentioned, teacher praise as an example of effective communication behavior can considerably influence EFL students' date and motivation.

A number of empirical studies accept shed light on the extent to which teacher praise is linked to students' academic motivation and date (Richard, 2012; Downs, 2017; Caldarella et al., 2021). As an instance, Richard (2012) examined the bear upon of teachers' verbal and nonverbal praise on students' date. In doing so, a group of American teachers and students took part in this enquiry. Some treatment sessions were run to find the furnishings of teacher verbal and nonverbal praise on students' classroom engagement. The analysis of the obtained data demonstrated that students' participation in classroom exercises was positively influenced by their teachers' verbal and nonverbal praise. In some other study, Downs (2017) probed into the effects of teacher praise on student' emotional behaviors, namely motivation and engagement. To this aim, 239 students were invited to attend some treatment session. The results of observations indicated that the verbal and nonverbal praise that teachers provided in treatment sessions favorably affected participants' motivation and engagement.

Conclusion and Pedagogical Implications

So far, various definitions of student academic motivation, academic engagement, and teacher praise, forth with their theoretical foundations, were illustrated. Building upon emotional response theory and the positive psychology motility, the association betwixt these variables was also explained. Additionally, a summary of the previous related studies was provided. Based on what has been reviewed in the current study, it is fair to conclude that teacher praise (verbal or nonverbal) is a strong antecedent of EFL students' bookish motivation and engagement. This finding can be highly beneficial for all EFL teachers who struggle with their students' insufficient motivation and engagement. As noted by Mottet et al. (2006) and Xie and Derakhshan (2021), through admiring students' behaviors, teacher can dramatically heighten student' date and motivation to learn. The review'due south finding has an important implication for teacher trainers also. An important reason underlying EFL students' lack of motivation and engagement is teachers' disability to praise students' behaviors (Duchaine et al., 2011). Thus, to improve EFL students' motivation and engagement, teachers should receive adequate instructions on how to praise their students' academic performances. Put it simply, teacher trainers should teach EFL instructors all they need to know regarding this positive communication behavior.

Author Contributions

The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has approved it for publication.

Funding

This paper is a special subject of Hainan Philosophy and Social Sciences Strange Language Awarding Enquiry Base "Study on Cultivation of Intercultural Communication Competence of College Students in Hainan Medical College under the Background of Free Trade Port" (grant no. HNWYJD18-05).

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could exist construed equally a potential disharmonize of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and practice non necessarily correspond those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be fabricated past its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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